Validation in Second Language Classroom Research: The Role of Observation

The purpose of this paper is to explore more precisely how observational analyses of classroom interaction can be validated, and further, how the validation of claims about instructional variables (such as the effectiveness of programs, teaching methods, syllabus changes, materials, rule presentations, and so on) depends on the application of valid observational analyses. Validity, which has many aspects but refers in essence to the determination of the "truth" of an analysis or theory, is a fundamental goal in researchers' efforts to understand and predict language learning and teaching outcomes. The paper will first briefly describe the place of observation in research validation, then show the applicability of validation in second language classroom research with respect to different methodological orientations, then illustrate three different approaches to validation of instructional research by means of observation

Academic Listening

This paper surveys the principal findings of research in academic listening and their implications for teachers and second language learners. Research focused on academic listening for non-native users of a language has been concerned with (a) the nature of academic speech in lectures (lecture style), structure and content, including aspects of use of visuals, and factors influencing the comprehension of lecture content); (b) the processes second language learners undergo while listening (goals, strategies, construction of acquisition of the second language; and (d0 the training of second language learners as listeners in academic contexts

Review Essay: A Critique of Flynn's Parameter-Setting Model of Second Language Acquisition

This paper is a critique of the parameter-setting model of second language acquisition proposed by Suzanne Flynn. Flynn has applied the notion of a universal head direction parameter to the prediction of acquisition of English adverbial clause structure and anaphoric relations by L1 Spanish, Japanese, and Chinese learners. In two studies involving elicited imitation and comprehension of target language sentences, Flynn argues that the head direction parameter explains the pattern of results. One proficiency group of Spanish learners revealed a greater ease in production of postposed (forward) pronoun anaphora over prcposcd (backward) anaphora, while Japanese and Chinese learners showed no differences. Flynn claims that the match in head direction between Spanish and English favors this outcome and related results, while Japanese and Chinese learners have difficulty because of the mismatch. This critique raises serious questions as to the adequacy of Flynn's methodology and model to investigate the issue or explain the results

Contrasting approaches to classroom research: Qualitative and quantitative analysis of languauge use and learning

Traditional concerns with foreign and second language education have been with instructional methodology, curriculum based on needs assessment, and occasionally well-grounded linguistic studies of acquisition. However, in recent years, applied linguists working in the area of education have dramatically expanded the scope of their research to address critical areas of practices and problems in language acquisition and use in classrooms. The purpose of this paper is to examine some of the recent research on language form and language choice and use, with respect to the theoretical basis and investigative methodology adopted to study these topics. The stage for understanding these is best set by first looking at developments over the past 20 years

Reduced costs with bisoprolol treatment for heart failure - An economic analysis of the second Cardiac Insufficiency Bisoprolol Study (CIBIS-II)

Background Beta-blockers, used as an adjunctive to diuretics, digoxin and angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors, improve survival in chronic heart failure. We report a prospectively planned economic analysis of the cost of adjunctive beta-blocker therapy in the second Cardiac Insufficiency BIsoprolol Study (CIBIS II). Methods Resource utilization data (drug therapy, number of hospital admissions, length of hospital stay, ward type) were collected prospectively in all patients in CIBIS . These data were used to determine the additional direct costs incurred, and savings made, with bisoprolol therapy. As well as the cost of the drug, additional costs related to bisoprolol therapy were added to cover the supervision of treatment initiation and titration (four outpatient clinic/office visits). Per them (hospital bed day) costings were carried out for France, Germany and the U.K. Diagnosis related group costings were performed for France and the U.K. Our analyses took the perspective of a third party payer in France and Germany and the National Health Service in the U.K. Results Overall, fewer patients were hospitalized in the bisoprolol group, there were fewer hospital admissions perpatient hospitalized, fewer hospital admissions overall, fewer days spent in hospital and fewer days spent in the most expensive type of ward. As a consequence the cost of care in the bisoprolol group was 5-10% less in all three countries, in the per them analysis, even taking into account the cost of bisoprolol and the extra initiation/up-titration visits. The cost per patient treated in the placebo and bisoprolol groups was FF35 009 vs FF31 762 in France, DM11 563 vs DM10 784 in Germany and pound 4987 vs pound 4722 in the U.K. The diagnosis related group analysis gave similar results. Interpretation Not only did bisoprolol increase survival and reduce hospital admissions in CIBIS II, it also cut the cost of care in so doing. This `win-win' situation of positive health benefits associated with cost savings is Favourable from the point of view of both the patient and health care systems. These findings add further support for the use of beta-blockers in chronic heart failure

Second language classrooms : research on teaching and learning

xvii, 221 p. : il.; 23 cm